The Elder Futhark: 24 characters, three ættir, an alphabet carried by stone, wood, and bone for over a thousand years.
The runes are the oldest writing system of Scandinavia. The Elder Futhark, with its 24 characters, was used from around the second century to the eighth century CE. The name futhark comes from the sound values of the first six runes: f-u-þ-a-r-k. Each rune had a name, a sound value, and a symbolic meaning that went beyond the purely orthographic.
Runes were carved into stone, wood, bone, and metal. Their forms are adapted for carving: straight lines dominate, and curves are avoided. Writing direction varies in early inscriptions. The runes developed from contact with Mediterranean alphabets (Latin or Etruscan), but the details of this process remain debated.
The 24 characters of the Elder Futhark are traditionally divided into three groups of eight called ættir (singular: ætt, 'family' or 'clan'). Each ætt takes its name from the rune that opens the group.
Freys ætt Freyr's ætt
fehu /f/
wealth, cattle
Sound: f as in fish
Literally 'cattle', the primary measure of wealth in Germanic society. The rune carries connotations of movable property, prosperity, and fertility.
ūruz /u/
aurochs, strength
Sound: oo as in mood
The aurochs (Bos primigenius), a now-extinct wild bovine symbolizing raw strength and untamed power. The species became extinct in Europe in 1627.
þurisaz /þ/
giant, thorn
Sound: voiceless th as in thing
The rune bears the name of the mythological giants (þursar). In the Anglo-Saxon rune poem it is interpreted as 'thorn', a connection to pain and danger.
ansuz /a/
god (Æsir), mouth
Sound: a as in father
Literally 'god' (one of the Æsir). In the Norwegian rune poem the rune is linked to Odin, chieftain of the gods. Odin is also the one who won the runes through his sacrifice in Yggdrasil.
raidō /r/
ride, journey, wagon
Sound: r as in ride
Riding and travelling, in both the concrete and symbolic sense. In the rune poems the rune is associated with the rider's exertion and the hardships of the journey.
kaunan /k/
torch, ulcer
Sound: k as in king
The rune's meaning is debated. In Norwegian and Icelandic tradition it is read as 'ulcer' (kaun), in the Anglo-Saxon as 'torch' (cen). Both readings carry connotations of fire and pain.
gebō /g/
gift, generosity
Sound: g as in gift
The gift as a social institution. In Germanic society, gift exchange was the most important form of alliance building. Giving and receiving gifts created mutual obligations.
wunjō /w/
joy, bliss
Sound: w as in water
Joy and contentment. The Anglo-Saxon rune poem describes it as the state of one who knows no sorrow, has abundance, and can enjoy the fruits of life.
Hagals ætt Hagal's ætt
hagalaz /h/
hail
Sound: h as in hail
Hail as a force of nature and destroyer of crops. The rune poems emphasize the cold whiteness of the hailstone and the damage it inflicts. A reminder of nature's unpredictability.
nauðiz /n/
need, constraint
Sound: n as in need
Need and deprivation, but also the resourcefulness that necessity breeds. The Icelandic rune poem calls need 'the bondmaid's grief and a hard condition'.
īsaz /i/
ice
Sound: ee as in freeze
Ice in all its aspects: dangerous yet beautiful, an obstacle yet also a bridge. The Norwegian rune poem calls ice 'the broadest of bridges'. In the mythological creation account, Niflheim's ice meets Muspelheim's fire.
jēra /j/
year, harvest, good season
Sound: y as in year
The year's good harvest, the reward after labour. The Icelandic rune poem calls it 'men's blessing and good summer weather and ripened fields'.
eihwaz /ï/
yew tree
Sound: between i and e
The yew tree (Taxus baccata), an evergreen associated with death and eternity. The tree is toxic yet supremely resilient; it can live for thousands of years. Yew wood was prized for archery bows.
perþō /p/
unclear, perhaps lot-casting
Sound: p as in pawn
The most enigmatic rune in the futhark. Its meaning is disputed: proposals include lot-casting, a dice cup, a fruit tree, and female genitalia. No rune poem provides an unambiguous interpretation.
algiz /z/
elk, protection
Sound: z (voiced s)
The rune's shape resembles an upraised hand sign or a pair of horns. It is read as 'elk-sedge' (a kind of marsh grass) in the Anglo-Saxon rune poem, but is associated in later tradition with protection and warding.
sōwilō /s/
sun
Sound: s as in sun
The sun as life-giver and guide. The Norwegian rune poem calls her 'the light of the world'. The solar cult has deep roots in the Nordic Bronze Age, and the sun's symbolic significance pervades the Norse tradition.
Tyrs ætt Tyr's ætt
tīwaz /t/
Tyr, divinity, justice
Sound: t as in Tyr
The god Tyr, who sacrificed his hand in the jaws of the Fenris Wolf so the gods could bind the beast. The rune is associated with justice, honour, and sacrifice. In earlier times Tyr was probably one of the highest gods.
berkanan /b/
birch, fertility
Sound: b as in birch
The birch, the defining tree of the Nordic landscape. The rune poems highlight the birch's green branches and the fact that it is the first tree to bear leaves in spring. The rune carries connotations of renewal and feminine fertility.
ehwaz /e/
horse
Sound: e as in egg
The horse, companion of the noble and the warrior. The Anglo-Saxon rune poem calls the horse 'the joy of the noble' and 'comfort for the restless'. In Norse myth, Sleipnir, Odin's eight-legged steed, is the supreme example.
mannaz /m/
human, humanity
Sound: m as in man
The human being in community. The Norwegian rune poem states: 'Man is the ornament of the earth.' The rune points toward the collective, the social bond that makes civilization possible.
laguz /l/
water, lake, sea
Sound: l as in lake
Water in all its forms: the lake, the river, the sea, the rain. In a seafaring culture like the Norse, this rune carries particular weight. The Icelandic rune poem calls water 'that which falls from the mountain' and 'ring's gold'.
ingwaz /ŋ/
Ing (fertility god)
Sound: ng as in ring
The god Ing, a figure related to the Vanir deity Freyr (Yngvi-Freyr). The rune is absent from the Nordic rune poems but is associated in the Anglo-Saxon tradition with fertility and the Danish people.
dagaz /d/
day, daylight
Sound: d as in day
Day and the light that breaks the darkness. The Anglo-Saxon rune poem calls day 'the Lord's messenger, dear to men, the Creator's glory, source of joy and hope'. The rune marks the transition from darkness to light.
ōþalan /o/
ancestral land, homeland
Sound: o as in own
Ancestral property, the inherited estate. In the Germanic legal system, allodial right was the most important expression of a free man's standing. To own land by inheritance was to belong to a place and a people. The rune closes the futhark with an image of belonging.
History
The Elder Futhark was in use from around the second century to the eighth century CE. The earliest known inscriptions appear on portable objects: combs, spearheads, brooches, and jewellery. The earliest datable finds, such as the Vimose comb from Denmark (c. 160 CE), carry short inscriptions that are often names or magical formulae.
During the eighth century, the runic system underwent a transformation in Scandinavia. The 24 characters were reduced to 16 in the so-called Younger Futhark, despite the language developing more sounds during the same period. This paradox, fewer characters for more sounds, is still not fully explained. The Younger Futhark became the script of the Viking Age and the one visible on most runestones.
The Anglo-Saxon futhorc instead expanded the system to between 26 and 33 runes to adapt it to the sound systems of the English dialects. The three rune poems, the Norwegian, the Icelandic, and the Anglo-Saxon, which preserve the runes' names and symbolic meanings, all date to the Middle Ages but probably rest on older oral tradition.
Sources
- Spurkland, Norwegian Runes and Runic Inscriptions (2005)
- Moltke, Runes and their Origin: Denmark and Elsewhere (1985)
- Page, An Introduction to English Runes (1999)
- Hávamál 138-141 Odin's self-sacrifice in Yggdrasil: 'I know that I hung on the wind-battered tree for nine full nights.'
- Sigrdrifumál 5-19 Sigrdrífa instructs Sigurd in rune magic: victory runes, ale runes, healing runes, and more.